Jakarta and its satellite cities, known collectively as Jabodetabek, are home to 42 million people and produce up to an estimated 14,000 tonnes of waste daily.

That has placed increasing strain on the eight or so landfill sites that serve the region, which are now all close to or entirely full, according to local media reports.

At a traditional market in the city’s south, Nurhasanah said the rubbish piling up by her coffee and snacks stand was bad for business.

“The smell is awful, very pungent. It is also unpleasant to look at. It looks filthy,” said Nurhasanah, who like many Indonesians only has one name.